THE IOS MINARET [AN ONLINE ISLAMIC MAGAZINE]

An online Islamic magazine launched by Institute of Objective Studies, New Delhi.

Pope Benedict XVI and Islamophobia

Pope Benedict XVI, while delivering his address at Regensburg University in Germany on September 12, quoted a dialogue from a 14th century book, written by a Christian priest, between the Byzantine emperor Manuel II Paleologus and an educated Persian Muslim on the subject of Christianity and Islam. The dialogue took place, at the initiative of the emperor, against the backdrop of the siege of Constantinople by the Ottoman king Bayazid I between 1394 and 1402.

The Pope pointed out that the emperor must have known that surah 2:256 of the Quran reads: "There is no compulsion in religion." But naturally, the Pope added, the emperor also knew the instructions, developed later and recorded in the Quran, concerning holy war. The emperor then asked the educated Muslim: 'Show me just what Mohammed brought that was new, and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached.'

'Show me just what Mohammed brought that was new, and there you will find things only evil and inhuman, such as his command to spread by the sword the faith he preached.'

The Pope added that the emperor then went on to "explain in detail the reasons why spreading the faith through violence is something unreasonable. Violence is incompatible with the nature of God and the nature of the soul. God is not pleased by blood-and not acting reasonably is contrary to God's nature. Faith is born of the soul, not the body.' The Pope then concluded: "The decisive statement in this argument against violent conversion is this: Not to act in accordance with reason is contrary to God's nature."

The Pope's remarks created a huge furore across the Muslim world. Islamic organizations and Muslim states denounced his statements and accused him of slandering Islam and the Prophet and attempting to rekindle the fires of the crusades. Iran's supreme religious leader Ayatollah Ali Khamenei stated that "the most important aim of these remarks is the creation of a religious crisis in the world and to make different religions confront each other. The remarks are in line with the crusade against Muslims." Morocco withdrew its ambassador to the Vatican, calling the Pope's comments offensive. The New York Times said in an editorial on September 17 that Pope Benedict must issue a "deep and persuasive apology for the quotes in his speech. The world listens carefully to the words of any pope. And it is tragic and dangerous when one sows pain, either deliberately or carelessly."

The New York Times said in an editorial on September 17 that Pope Benedict must issue a "deep and persuasive apology for the quotes in his speech. The world listens carefully to the words of any pope. And it is tragic and dangerous when one sows pain, either deliberately or carelessly."

Some fair-minded Christian priests also felt that the Pope's remarks had the potential to hurt the sentiments of Muslims. Fr Julian Saldanha, a theology professor at the St. Pius Seminary in Goregaon (Mumbai) felt that the Pope should have shown greater sensitivity. He said that the Pope reproduced a quotation which is derogatory of the Prophet Mohammed, without refuting it or showing that he disagrees with it. I cannot agree with this comment, which is incorrect and lacking in sensitivity and respect, said Fr Saldanha. It would be good, he added, if the Pope told us what he appreciated about the Prophet. Rev Daniel A. Madigan, Rector of the Institute for the Study of Religions and Cultures at the Pontifical Gregorian University in Rome, said that "you clearly take a risk using an example like that. Certainly the Pope closes the door to an idea which was very dear to Pope John Paul II-the idea that Christians, Jews and Muslims have the same God and have to pray together to the same God." A Catholic journalist Kornelius Puruba, writing in the Jakarta Post, said that "it will be more difficult now-after the Pope's recent remarks-to argue that there is no clash of civilizations between the West (Christianity) and Islam."

A half-hearted apology Faced with world-wide protests from Muslims, Pope Benedict tendered a personal apology for his remarks on September 17. He said in his apology that he was misunderstood and added that he was "deeply sorry for the reaction in some countries to a few passages of my address at the University of Regensburg, which were considered offensive to the sensibility of Muslims. These in fact were a quotation from a medieval text, which do not in any way express my personal thought. I hope that this serves to appease hearts and to clarify that the true meaning of my address, which in its totality, was and is an invitation to frank and sincere dialogue, with great mutual respect." The next day he told pilgrims at the Vatican that his remarks on Islam had been misunderstood, adding "I trust that my words at the University of Regensburg can constitute an impulse and encouragement towards positive, even self-critical, dialogue both among religions and between modern reason and Christian faith." It appears from the text of his apology and the remarks he made at the Vatican that the Pope did not think he said anything wrong. He only expressed his regret for the "reactions" of Muslims. He said that the quotation from the medieval text does not reflect his own "personal thought." One wishes he was more explicit in his apology and about his "personal thought" (on Islam and the Prophet). The least he could have done is to retract his statement. Hence his apology seems to be half-hearted.

A profile of Pope Benedict XVI Long before he was elevated as pope, Cardinal Joseph Ratzinger (as he was known before assuming the title of Pope Benedict XVI) was known for his doctrinal conservatism and his intolerance of dissent. He believes the Church to be a divinely-ordained institution and is highly critical of those priests and theologians who think of it as a human construction. He believes that "the Church, the bearer of faith, does not sin." Unlike his predecessor John Paul II, who was very supportive of inter-faith dialogue, especially between Christians and Muslims, and who was the first pope to ever step in a mosque (in Syria in 2001), Pope Benedict XVI does not think much of inter-faith dialogue. He believes that divine revelation came to an end with Jesus Christ. In 1996 he had written that Islam had difficulty in adapting to modern life. Pope Benedict is firmly opposed to birth control and abortion, ardently supports the celibacy of priesthood, and is against the ordination of women. He is reported to have said that anyone who supports the "grave sin" of abortion should be denied communion. He once denounced rock music as the "vehicle of anti-religion." In 1981 Cardinal Ratzinger was appointed the head of Vatican's Congregation for the Doctrine of the Faith (which was earlier known as the Inquisition). He has a reputation for stifling dissent. One of his early campaigns was against liberation theology. (Liberation theology is a Roman Catholic movement that originated in Latin America in the last decades of the 20th century. It seeks to express religious faith by helping the poor and by working for social and political transformation. The Vatican has been wary of liberation theology and has sought to undermine its influence by appointing more conservative prelates.) Pope Benedict has described the supporters and sympathizers of liberation theology as being inspired by Marxism rather than Christianity. In 2004 when he was the Vatican's topmost theologian, Cardinal Ratzinger created a stir by opposing Turkey's bid to join the European Union because "as a Muslim country, it was in permanent contrast to Europe." He argued that Turkey belonged to a different cultural sphere, adding that its admission into the EU would be a grave error against the tide of history.

In 2004 when he was the Vatican's topmost theologian, Cardinal Ratzinger created a stir by opposing Turkey's bid to join the European Union because "as a Muslim country, it was in permanent contrast to Europe." He argued that Turkey belonged to a different cultural sphere, adding that its admission into the EU would be a grave error against the tide of history.

One of the first signs of Pope Benedict's departure from the reconciliatory approach of Pope John Paul II and his toughening stance towards the Islamic world was the removal from office, at his instance, of Archbishop Michael Fitzgerald. The British-born cleric was heading a Vatican department that promoted dialogue with other religions. A distinguished scholar on Arab and Muslim affairs, he was an acknowledged expert on the Islamic world and on Christian-Muslim relations. The decision by Pope Benedict to remove Fitzgerald from his post and to send him to Egypt as papal nuncio was widely seen as a demotion.

Father Thomas Reese, a Jesuit scholar and an authority on the workings of the Vatican, told the BBC news website that "the Pope's worst decision so far has been the exiling of Archbishop Fitzgerald. He was the smartest guy in the Vatican on relations with Muslims. You don't exile someone like that, you listen to them. If the Vatican says something dumb about Muslims, people will die in parts of Africa and churches will be burned in Indonesia, let alone what happens in the Middle East."

During his recent visit to Spain, Pope Benedict prayed at the ancient cathedral in Valencia, which was originally a mosque built during Muslim rule. (Contrast this with the action of the caliph Umar who refused to say his prayers in the premises of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre lest it might be claimed it as a mosque by later Muslims.)

Between the lines

Pope Benedict's remarks on Islam in his address at Regensburg University, his subsequent apology and his statement at the Vatican on September 18 should be seen not in isolation but in the context of his overall views about Islam and Muslims and about inter-faith dialogue. The sub-text of his remarks and their subtle insinuations point to a set of unstated assumptions about Islam, which are set forth in the following.

These hidden, unstated assumptions underlying the Pope's remarks become clearer in the light of the Swiss interior minister Pascal Couchepin's defence of his speech, reported by the media on September 17. Couchepin described the Pope's speech as "intelligent and necessary." He added that Christianity is based on the Greek way of thinking in which faith does not contradict reason, while in Islam Allah can do literally everything even if it contradicts reason. This is what the Pope was pointing out and I think he was right, he added. EU Commission President Jose Manuel Durao Barroso also defended the Pope, saying more European leaders should have supported him. The problem is not the comments of the Pope but the reactions of the extremists, he added.

Islamophobia

Norman Daniel, in his illuminating book Islam and the West: The Making of an Image (1960), has shown that from the time of St. John of Damascus in the eighth century and Peter the Venerable in the twelfth century, the Western perception of Islam has been shaped, for the most part, by ignorance, prejudice and misrepresentation. St. John (d. 750) regarded Islam as a Christian heresy. Pope Innocent III described Prophet Muhammad as the Antichrist. The Royal Chaplain and Father Confessor of Spain, Jaime Bleda, introduced the Prophet as the deceiver of the world, false prophet, Satan's messenger, the Beast of the Apocalypse and the worst precursor of the Antichrist. The Prophet was debunked by Christian polemicists as an ambitious schemer, a bandit, an impostor and even an epileptic. His claim to prophecy was dismissed as fraudulent and his religion a sum of heresy. Mosques were described as synagogues of Satan. Martin Luther wrote several treatises attacking the Quran and Prophet Muhammad. He dubbed Islam as a false religion. (Islam and the West: The Making of an Image, pp. 246, 276; see also R. W. Southern: Western Views of Islam in the Middle Ages (1962), and Minou Reeves: Muhammad in Europe: A Thousand Years of Western Myth Making (2000).

Following the Second Vatican Council (1962-65), the Office for Non-Christian Affairs at the Vatican produced a document entitled "Orientations for a Dialogue between Christians and Muslims" in 1970, which urges Christians to 'clear away the outdated image, inherited from the past, or distorted by prejudice and slander, that Christians have of Islam. The document recognizes the past injustice towards the Muslims for which the West, with its Christian education, is to blame. The document notes with regret that far too many Christians, brought up in an atmosphere of open hostility, are against any reflection on Islam."

Following the Second Vatican Council (1962-65), the Office for Non-Christian Affairs at the Vatican produced a document entitled "Orientations for a Dialogue between Christians and Muslims" in 1970, which urges Christians to 'clear away the outdated image, inherited from the past, or distorted by prejudice and slander, that Christians have of Islam. The document recognizes the past injustice towards the Muslims for which the West, with its Christian education, is to blame. The document notes with regret that far too many Christians, brought up in an atmosphere of open hostility, are against any reflection on Islam."

The Runnymede Trust in Britain set up a Commission on Islamophobia in 1997, which revealed that Islamophobia-fear of and hostility towards Islam and Muslims-was one of the chief forms of racism in the country. The wide prevalence of Islamophobia in Western countries is reflected in the stigmatization and demonization of Islam and Muslims, in the opposition to the visibility of Islamic symbols in public places, in the distortion and misrepresentation of matters related to Muslims by the Western media, in racial profiling and surveillance, in the opposition to immigration by the far-right political parties, and in discrimination against Muslims in respect of employment, education and housing. It is widely believed in Europe that its over 20 million Muslims pose a serious threat to the security, culture and prosperity of European societies. Islamophobia has been on the rise after 9/11.(see http://www.eumc.eu.int)

Islamophobia has been strengthened by the writings of some intellectuals and writers in the West, such as Oriana Fallaci, Bernard Lewis, Samuel Huntington and Francis Fukuyama. Oriana Fallaci, Italian writer and journalist, described Europe as "Eurabia" and said that "the continent has sold itself and sells itself to the enemy (Muslims) like a prostitute. Europe has become more and more a province of Islam, a colony of Islam."

Jihad

The thrust of the Byzantine emperor's argument, quoted by the Pope, is that the notion of jihad involves the spread of Islam by the sword. Unfortunately, both the emperor and the Pope seem to be ill-informed about the meaning and import of jihad. It connotes a sincere striving in the service of a virtuous cause. It includes a struggle within oneself in order to gain control over one's base sentiments and traits (such as jealousy, greed, malice, dishonesty), a fearless assertion of truth before a tyrannical ruler, the fight against injustice and oppression, and the sacrifice of one's wealth and even life in defence of one's country or one's honour. Therefore, jihad cannot be exclusively identified with force or violence, though it may sometimes involve force.

It is significant to note that before his arrest by the Romans, Jesus told his disciples: "He that hath no sword, let him sell his garment and buy one" (Luke 22:36). The gospels say that when Jesus entered the temple in Jerusalem and began to drive out those who were buying and selling within its sacred precincts, he overturned the tables of the money-changers and the seats of those who sold doves (Mark 11:15-16). The gospel of John adds that Jesus "knotted a whip out of small cords and drove them all out of the temple" (John 2:15).

Islam and the sword

The belief, reflected in the quotation used by the Pope, that Islam has spread by the sword is a malicious canard which has been perpetuated in Europe for the past several centuries. There is an enormous amount of historical, empirical and sociological evidence to refute this belief. It is pertinent to quote Thomas Arnold, an English missionary in the Indian Civil Service of colonial days:

... of any organized attempt to force the acceptance of Islam on the non-Muslim population, or of any systematic prosecution intended to stamp out the Christian religion, we hear nothing. Had the caliphs chosen to adopt either course of action, they might have swept away Christianity as easily as Ferdinand and Isabella drove Islam out of Spain, or Louis XIV made Protestantism penal in France, or the Jews were kept out of England for 350 years. The Eastern Churches in Asia were entirely cut off from communion with the rest of Christendom throughout which no one would have been found to lift a finger on their behalf, as heretical communions. So that the very survival of these Churches to the present day is a strong proof of the generally tolerant attitude of the Muhammadan governments towards them (The Preaching of Islam (1896), p. 80).

Peaceful coexistence, tolerance and accommodation are the hallmarks of the Islamic tradition. The Quran explicitly states that there is no place for compulsion in Islam (2:256; 109:6). The attitude and behaviour of Prophet Muhammad towards the beliefs and traditions of the followers of other religions exhibited exemplary tolerance, understanding and magnanimity. He allowed a delegation of polytheists and idolators from Taif to stay in his mosque at Madina. Some Christians from Najran, who visited the Prophet, sought his permission to say their prayers in the mosque, which was granted.

Cordoba Mosque When the Prophet set up a city-state at Madina, he drew up its constitution, which was committed to writing at his instance. This constitution included two significant passages: first, Muslims and Jews will be entitled to the preservation and protection of their respective religious traditions; second, Muslims and Jews will together constitute a (political) community. This covenant was extended, at a later date, to the Christians of Najran and the pagan Arabs. Thus the Pax Islamica included not only Muslims but also Jews, Christians and pagan Arabs, and guaranteed to them religious, cultural, and judicial autonomy. The city-state of Madina provided the first model of democratic pluralism. The charter of rights and assurances issued to the Christian population of Najran by the Prophet included the following passage:

An assurance is hereby extended, on behalf of God and the Prophet, to the people of Najran, that their lives, religion, lands and wealth will be protected. No change in their existing conditions will be effected. Their rights will not be violated. Their commercial caravans and delegations will be protected. No cardinal will be dismissed from his position, nor will an ascetic be denied the right to his way of life. The custodians of churches will face no interference in respect of their functions.

This attitude of tolerance and sympathy was continued by the four caliphs and the companions. It is remarkable that the occupation of Syria by the Muslim army during the caliphate of Abu Bakr met with no resistance from the local Christian population who welcomed the Muslim soldiers who, in their eyes, liberated them from the oppression of their own coreligionists. When Khalid ibn Walid concluded a treaty with the Christian population after the conquest of Hira during the caliphate of Abu Bakr, he gave a written assurance to them that their churches would not be destroyed or desecrated by Muslims and that they would not be prevented from ringing their bells or from carrying crosses in their religious processions.

During the caliphate of Umar, some Muslims usurped a piece of land belonging to a Jew and constructed a mosque on the site. When the Caliph got to know about it he ordered the demolition of the mosque and the restoration of the land to the Jew. During the caliphate of Ali, the Muslim-occupied territories of the Byzantine Empire faced internal strife. Emperor Constantine II sent a secret message to the Christian population in the Islamic state, urging them to rise in revolt against Islamic rule and assuring them of his military support. The Christians, however, spurned the offer, saying, "These enemies of our religion are preferable to you."

After the conquest of Jerusalem, the caliph Umar gave the following assurance, in writing, to the Christian population of the town:

This is the assurance which Umar, the servant of God, the commander of the faithful, grants to the people of Aelia. He grants to them security for their lives, their possessions, their churches and their crosses, and for all that concerns their religion. Their churches shall not be converted into dwelling places, nor destroyed, nor shall any constraint be put upon them in respect of their faith.

Under the Islamic dispensation, non-Muslims were entitled to preserve and maintain their places of worship and to construct new ones. In some cases, the expenses for the maintenance and repair of their places of worship were met from the state treasury. Similarly, the salaries of Jewish rabbis and Christian priests were often paid from the state treasury. Non-Muslims who had no source of income received stipends from the state treasury.

During the caliphate of Uthman, Jeserjah, the bishop of Merv, wrote a letter to the Patriarch of Persia, saying that the Arabs, whom God has given dominion over the world, do not attack Christianity. On the contrary, they help our religion, respect our priests and shrines, and offer donations to our churches and monasteries. Michael the Elder, Jacobite Patriarch of Antioch wrote in the second half of the 12th century: "This is why the God of vengeance��.beholding the wickedness of the Romans who, throughout their dominions, cruelly plundered our churches and our monasteries and condemned us without pity-brought from the region of the south the sons of Ishmael, to deliver us through them from the hands of the Romans."

Islamic law guarantees religious and cultural protection not only to the Jews and Christians but also to Zoroastrians, Sabaeans and worshippers of idols. After the conquest of Persia, the fire temples of Zoroastrians were left untouched by the Muslims. In the tenth century, three centuries after the Islamic conquest of Persia, fire temples were to be found in every province of Persia. Following the conquest of Sind, Muhammad ibn Qasim gave a written assurance to the local Hindu population to the effect that their temples would not be harmed or destroyed. Daibul had a majestic Buddhist temple perched on a hillock. Multan had a magnificent Hindu temple. All such places of worship were left untouched by Muhammad ibn Qasim.

Jewish communities have lived in peace with Muslims for several centuries in Arabia, Palestine, Jordan, Syria, Persia, Egypt, Spain, Turkey and North Africa. When the Jews were expelled from Spain along with Muslims, they took shelter in Muslim lands. In Turkey they were personally received and welcomed by the mayor of Istanbul. It is significant to note that Ladino or Judaeo-Spanish survived only in the eastern Mediterranean lands which were part of the Ottoman Empire. The Islamic state protected and safeguarded their Jewish identity and their rabbinic courts. Jews, who had suffered oppression and persecution at the hands of Greek, Roman and Byzantine rulers, looked upon Muslims as liberators. Some Jews became ministers, advisors and physicians to the caliphs. The court of Abd al-Rahman III (891-961) in Cordoba had a Jewish prime minister, Hasdai ben Shapirut. In fact, Jewish culture and the Hebrew language experienced their golden age under the aegis of Islamic civilization. Coincidentally, the Pope is scheduled to visit Turkey in November this year to meet the spiritual leader of the world's 200 million Orthodox Christians, Ecumenical Patriarch Bartholomew I, whose headquarters are historically in Istanbul.

A violent history

As a theologian Pope Benedict must certainly be aware of the following statement of Jesus Christ: "The straw that is in thy brother's eye, thou seest; but the beam that is thine own eye, thou seest not! Hypocrite, cast first the beam out of thine own eye, and then shalt thou see clearly to take out the straw from thy brother's eye" (Luke 6: 41-42).

The record of the Catholic Church, which has been amply documented by Western scholars, is scarred by deception, corruption, brutal suppression of dissent, and violence. The first Muslim missionaries who were sent to Christendom were met with swords drawn and were massacred at Dhat al-Talh in 629.

The Crusades

The Crusades (1095-1292) cast a long and ominous shadow for several centuries over Christian-Muslim relations. In a recent article, Daniel Johnson writes that in the eyes even of most Christians, the Crusades were a crime against humanity, one for which apologies are due, especially to Muslims. (Daniel Johnson, "How to Think About the Crusades" Commentary, 120 (1), July-August 2005) The Crusades were a barbaric, unprovoked war of aggression, conquest and extermination. As several Western historians have pointed out, many of the crusaders were motivated by greed and avarice and by the pursuit of land and plunder. Anti-Islamic rhetoric incited the passions of the crusaders. Pope Urban II contemptuously described Muslims as "a race utterly alien to God." When Jerusalem fell in 1099, the crusaders vandalized and devastated the city and massacred tens of thousands of Muslims and Jews. For Jews, who had been living in the city in peace and harmony with Muslims, it was a catastrophe unprecedented since the destruction of the Temple. Soon the definition of crusade was widened to include the extermination of Jews, heretics and pagans in Europe and elsewhere. During the fourth Crusade, which was diverted from the reconquest of Jerusalem and instead turned to the sacking of Constantinople in 1204, Eastern Orthodox Christians also suffered at the hands of the crusaders.

The Crusades (1095-1292) cast a long and ominous shadow for several centuries over Christian-Muslim relations. In a recent article, Daniel Johnson writes that in the eyes even of most Christians, the Crusades were a crime against humanity, one for which apologies are due, especially to Muslims.

A few years ago, the Nobel Prize-winning German novelist Guenter Grass suggested that Pope John Paul II, "who knows how lasting and devastating the disaster wrought by the mentality and actions of Christian crusaders have been", should issue a formal apology to the Muslim world.

The crusades were directed not only against Muslims and Jews but also those persons and communities, such as the Knight Templar and the Cathari, which were declared heretics by the Church. The suspected heretics were arrested by the Inquisition, tried, tortured and ultimately burned at the stake. The use of torture against heretics was approved by Pope Innocent IV in 1252. The Knight Templar were a religious military order of knighthood established during the Crusades in the early 12th century for the purpose of protecting pilgrims from Muslim warriors. They took vows of poverty and chastity and performed courageous service. They flourished for two centuries and their number swelled to 20,000. By 1304 they were falsely accused of harbouring heretical beliefs and practices and were made the target of persecution. Under instructions from Pope Clement V, their properties were confiscated. Many were imprisoned and executed. Their leader Jacques de Molay was burned at the stake.

One of the victims of the Inquisition was the Christian sect of Cathari or Albigensians, who flourished in southern France in the 12th and 13th centuries. The Cathari believed that the material world was evil and therefore one must renounce the world to free his spirits. They saw Jesus Christ as a noble being, an angel, rather than as God incarnate. They were declared heretics by Pope Innocent III, who launched the Albigensian crusade against them. The entire populace in the Cathar regions in France was ruthlessly massacred and their towns were laid waste. An estimated 20,000 people, including women and children, were killed. Those held prisoner were tortured, blinded and mutilated. Likewise, Franciscans were suspected of being infested with heresy and many of them were burned at the stake.

In the Middle Ages, sorcery and witchcraft were believed to be associated with demonic possession and heresy and so came within the purview of the Inquisition. The Inquisition published a scandalous book Malleus Maleficarum (The Witches' Hammer), which instructed the Catholic clergy how to identify, torture and execute those women who were deemed "witches" by the Church. These "witches" included female scholars, priestesses, gypsies, and midwives who used medical knowledge to ease the pain of childbirth. In the course of three hundred years of witch-hunt by the Church, hundreds of thousands of women were burned at the stake.

After the destruction of Jerusalem by the Romans in 70 A.D. Christian rulers had prohibited the Jews from entering or living in the city. Following the sack of Granada in 1492, a campaign of forcible conversion of Muslims and Jews at the instance of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, with the approval of the Church, was carried out. Those who refused were exiled or executed. About five hundred thousand Muslims and nearly two hundred thousand Jews were expelled from the country. In 1290, during the reign of King Edward I, all Jews were exiled from Britain. It was only after 366 years that they were allowed to return and settle in Britain during the time of Oliver Cromwell. Jews were denied citizenship and religious and cultural freedom in much of Europe during the Middle Ages. In some regions they were forcibly expelled. Anti-Semitism has continued to persist in Europe to this day.

Following the sack of Granada in 1492, a campaign of forcible conversion of Muslims and Jews at the instance of King Ferdinand and Queen Isabella, with the approval of the Church, was carried out. Those who refused were exiled or executed. About five hundred thousand Muslims and nearly two hundred thousand Jews were expelled from the country. In 1290, during the reign of King Edward I, all Jews were exiled from Britain. It was only after 366 years that they were allowed to return and settle in Britain during the time of Oliver Cromwell. Jews were denied citizenship and religious and cultural freedom in much of Europe during the Middle Ages.

Pope Benedict has stated that "violence is incompatible with the nature of God and the nature of the soul." He must surely be sure that in many cases violence was perpetrated by those, including priests and popes, who swore by this lofty principle. His namesake Pope Benedict (972-974) was strangled by a priest after the Roman citizens rebelled against him. Pope Damasus I (366-384) hired a group of killers to spend three days massacring his opponents.

The conquest of the Americas by the Spanish in the 16th century led to an extensive plundering of the local resources and the decimation of the indigenous population. The genocide was blessed by the Holy See.

The First and Second World Wars, which were mainly fought among Christian states, took a huge toll of human lives. In World War I, ten million people were killed and around 21 million were wounded. In World War II, 27 million people lost their lives and hundreds of thousands of soldiers were wounded and maimed. In addition, between 20 and 30 million civilians were killed as a result of aerial bombardment, mass atrocities, deportations and genocide. One of the most brutal and blood-chilling genocides in human history took place in Nazi Germany where nearly six million Jews, Gypsies and Slavs were systematically massacred by shooting, medical experimentation, or by the use of gas chambers. Pope Pius XII maintained an enigmatic silence in the face of the Holocaust.

In the Bosnian civil war (1992-95) the Serbs carried out a brutal pogrom of ethnic cleansing and genocide against Muslims and Croatians. Virtually the entire population of Bosnia-Herzegovina was uprooted. Thousands of people were mercilessly massacred and hundreds of women were raped. The Christian churches in Bosnia were severely compromised. Radavan Karadjic, the Serb general who masterminded the pogrom, was never reprimanded by the Orthodox Church. The Vatican extended its support only to Catholic Croatia.

The IRA cadres in Ireland and Basque separatists in Spain and France (who are Catholics) have carried out violent, terrorist activities against their own coreligionists and their respective states for decades.

Reason and revelation

The conclusion drawn by Pope Benedict XVI from the dialogue between the Byzantine emperor and the Persian Muslim is that "not to act in accordance with reason is contrary to God's nature."

The Pope may or may not be aware-and even if he is, he is unlikely to acknowledge-the debt that Christian theology and Western civilization owes to Islam. The subject of the relation between reason and revelation-on which he waxes eloquent-engaged the minds of some of the greatest Muslim philosophers and theologians more than a thousand years ago. Al-Ghazali (d. 1109, known in Europe as Algazel), Ibn Rushd (d. 1198, known as Averroes), Ibn Sina (d. 1037, known as Avicenna) and Al-Frabi (d. 950, known as Alfarabius or Avennasar) wrote extensively on the place of reason in religion.

What is particularly important, as the distinguished historian Robert Hammond has convincingly demonstrated, is that several Christian theologians in the Middle Ages, notably St. Thomas Aquinas (d. 1274), Raymond Lull (d. 1314), Albertus Magnus and Raymund Martin, were greatly influenced by the ideas of Muslim philosophers and theologians. The views of Ibn Sina had a deep influence on the scholastic philosophy of Albertus Magnus.

Al-Ghazli wrote a treatise in the late 11th century on the relation between reason and revelation. Thomas Aquinas, the foremost philosopher and theologian of the Catholic Church and the champion of orthodoxy, was profoundly influenced by the ideas of Al-Ghazali, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. Aquinas' view that reason is capable of operating within faith, enunciated in his Summa Theologica, bears the unmistakable imprint of the thoughts of Muslim philosophers. In his Quaestiones Disputatae, Thomas Aquinas refers to Averroes' observations on the nature of God's knowledge. He borrowed a great deal from Al-Farabi, especially in regard to the attributes of God and the proofs of His existence. The arguments set forth by Aquinas for the existence of God are virtually the same as those enunciated by Al-Farabi.

Thomas Aquinas, the foremost philosopher and theologian of the Catholic Church and the champion of orthodoxy, was profoundly influenced by the ideas of Al-Ghazali, Al-Farabi, Ibn Sina and Ibn Rushd. Aquinas' view that reason is capable of operating within faith, enunciated in his Summa Theologica, bears the unmistakable imprint of the thoughts of Muslim philosophers. In his Quaestiones Disputatae, Thomas Aquinas refers to Averroes' observations on the nature of God's knowledge. He borrowed a great deal from Al-Farabi, especially in regard to the attributes of God and the proofs of His existence. The arguments set forth by Aquinas for the existence of God are virtually the same as those enunciated by Al-Farabi.

One wishes the Pope, who claims to be such a great votary of reason, could engage in some self-introspection concerning the compatibility between reason and Christian dogmas, including trinity, the divinity of Jesus Christ, original sin and atonement. Since the Enlightenment there has been a growing realization of the fact that these Christian doctrines are at variance with reason. The process of secularization, which is continuing apace in Europe, owes much, in addition to the scientific spirit and modernization, to the perceived unreasonableness of many of the dogmas of Pauline Christianity.

An anthropologist Leopold Pospisil, in his book The Kapauku Papuans of West New Guinea (1963) quotes a Papuan native in a 'Stone Age' society that was still mainly unaffected by Western culture at the time of his fieldwork in 1955. The native asked, 'Why, if (as you say) God is omnipotent, did the Creator have to change himself into a man and allow himself to be killed (crucified) when it would have been enough for him to order men to behave?' The native added that the Christian notion of man resembling God in appearance seemed to him utterly "stupid" (p. 85). T. J. Winter, an Oxford don who embraced Islam many years ago, recently said in a statement that he regards the doctrine of the Holy Trinity as nonsensical.

The endemic conflict between the Catholic Church and science is too well known to be reiterated. The cosmological theories of Bruno (d. 1600), which laid the foundation of modern cosmology, were declared as heretical by the Catholic Church and led to his excommunication. After a seven-year trial by the Roman Inquisition he was burnt at the stake.

Many of the tenets of the Catholic Church, such as celibacy of priesthood, prohibition of the ordination of women in the church, and the taboo on birth control methods-even in the face of the grave menace of HIV/AIDS in Africa-are being increasingly perceived as irrational and out of sync with modern times by lay Christians as well as a growing number of Catholic priests.

The point is that the Catholic Church needs to set its own house in order before pointing fingers at others.

The Catholic Church and the crisis of credibility

Pope Benedict XVI, and the Catholic Church in general, seem to be greatly perturbed by certain developments in Europe. These include the steady decline of Christianity on the continent, the dwindling fortunes of the Catholic Church, and the growing visibility of Muslims, including the large-scale conversion of white Christians to Islam.

Church attendance is steadily declining in most European countries. In Germany (the Pope's native country), between 1965 and 1999 the percentage of church-goers dropped from 75% to less than 30%. It has now fallen to less than 15%. In 1851, about 60% of the population of England and Wales attended church. By the end of the 20th century this figure dropped to 10%. In Sweden church attendance is now about 5%. The available survey data indicate that in most European countries there has been a general erosion of religious beliefs and a steady decline in church membership and attendance. The number of people willing to join the priesthood is steadily falling. In Britain, between 1900 and 1984 the number of priests declined from 20,000 to 10,000. The Catholic Church is faced with a worrying shortage of priests, especially in Europe.

Another source of worry and disquiet for the Catholic Church is the growing popularity of new religious movements and sects such as Pentecostalism, Jehovah's Witnesses, Scientology, Assemblies of God, and the charismatic movement. Pentecostalism, a Protestant movement which originated at a Bible College in Kansas, USA in 1901, is the world's fastest growing sect within Christianity with some 500 million followers. The World Christian Encyclopaedia suggests that by 2050 there may be more than a billion people (nearly as much as the present Catholic population around the world) affiliated with Pentecostalism.

In the past few years there has been a spate of highly popular books, written by Western scholars and writers, which cast grave doubts on some of the fundamental tenets of Christianity. These books include The Passover Plot (first published in 1965) by Hugh Schonfield (which has sold over six million copies in 18 languages), The Gnostic Gospels (1980) by Elaine Pagels, Holy Blood, Holy Grail (1982) by Michael Baigent, Richard Leigh and Henry Lincoln, Lost Christianities (2003) by Bart D. Ehrman, The Da Vinci Code (first published in 2003) by Dan Brown (which has become a publishing phenomenon and the subject of a popular-and controversial-film), and The Jesus Papers: Exposing the Greatest Cover-Up in History (2006) by Michael Baigent, which is a New York Times bestseller.

The Muslim population in Europe, including immigrants, their second and third generation descendants, and converts, has experienced a remarkable growth in recent years. The number of Muslims in Europe is estimated at 25-30 million, with more than 5 million in France, 3 million in Germany and 1.6 million in Britain. The number of white Christian converts to Islam is steadily rising, especially in France, Germany, Britain and the Netherlands. In the Netherlands there has been a ten-fold increase in the number of white converts after 9/11. In Paris alone there are more than a hundred thousand white converts, mostly women. In Britain the number of white converts exceeds 40,000. These converts include T. J. Winter, an Oxford scholar, Martin Lings, a former Keeper of Oriental Manuscripts at the British Museum, Yahya Birt, the son of BBC's former chief, Matthew Wilkinson, former head boy of Eaton, Joe Ahmad Dobson, the son of a former cabinet minister in Britain, members of the New Left, and some members of the House of Lords.

The Muslim population in Europe, including immigrants, their second and third generation descendants, and converts, has experienced a remarkable growth in recent years. The number of Muslims in Europe is estimated at 25-30 million, with more than 5 million in France, 3 million in Germany and 1.6 million in Britain. The number of white Christian converts to Islam is steadily rising, especially in France, Germany, Britain and the Netherlands. In the Netherlands there has been a ten-fold increase in the number of white converts after 9/11.

Yahya Birt says that "Islam is pure monotheism. It has a clear moral system and an intact tradition of religious scholarship. No scripture expresses its message of the oneness of God as clearly as the Quran. It also has a rich mysticism, which maybe what appeals to middle class white Brits like me." One may ask the Pope whether he thinks the conversion of tens of thousands of white Christian converts to Islam in Europe is due to forcible or violent proselytization.

Christian-Muslim dialogue in a globalising world

Christians and Muslims constitute nearly half of the world's population. The followers of the Judaeo-Christian-Islamic tradition need to join hands in order to face the challenges of our globalizing era. This can be done by engaging in a sincere dialogue in an atmosphere of mutual respect, sensitivity and accommodation. However, this dialogue is not likely to bear fruit unless the subliminal baggage of prejudices and malice is abandoned, unless the attitude of self-righteousness and exclusion is given up.

Since the time of Cyprian (d. 258), who propounded the principle that outside the Church of Rome there is no salvation, the Catholic Church continues to believe that "whosoever�..knowing that the Catholic Church was made necessary by God through Jesus Christ, would refuse to enter her, or to remain in her, could not be saved." In other words, not only Jews and Muslims (as well as the followers of other religions) but also Protestants and Orthodox Christians are unworthy of salvation. After 2000 years the Second Vatican Council (1962-65) decreed that Judaism is religiously acceptable as a preparatio for Christianity. Unfortunately, neither the Catholic Church nor the Protestant and Orthodox churches have ever recognized Islam as embodying a genuine religious experience.

The Federation of Asian Bishops' Conferences has issued a refreshing statement in recent times.

The Church has to be in constant dialogue with the religions of Asia and to embark on this with great seriousness�..There may be more truth about God and life than it is made known to us through the Jesus of history and the Church. As such, Christians who take Christ's injunctions seriously must search for this truth in the various religions of the world.

Islam espouses a pure, unadulterated monotheism, which is the corner-stone of the Judaeo-Christian tradition. Furthermore, Islam is the only religion in the world (besides, of course, Christianity) which unequivocally affirms the prophecy and ministry of Jesus Christ and hold him and his mother Mary in great esteem. The Quran offers an open invitation to Jews and Christians in the following words:

Say: "O People of the Book! Come to common terms as between us and you: That we worship none but God; that we associate no partners with Him; that we do not erect, from among ourselves, lords and patrons other than God." (3:64)

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