The era of globalisation

Globalisation is a metaphor for a world that is seen as increasingly interconnected, where borders and boundaries are increasingly becoming porous, allowing for an extensive, unprecedented movement of capital, goods, technology, people, cultural patterns, images and ideas. A great deal of hype and euphoria surrounds the process of globalisation. The protagonists of globalisation speak glowingly of the end of geography, deterritorialization, a borderless world, the global village. The fact of the matter is that globalisation is a mixed bag of the good, the not so good, and the bad. Globalisation is being perceived and experienced differently by different people in different parts of the world.

Undoubtedly, the processes of modernization and globalisation have brought about unprecedented affluence and prosperity in the technologically advanced countries of the West and in Japan. At the same time, however, globalisation has been accompanied by evident inequalities and wide asymmetries of wealth, power and resources, dislocation of traditional cultures, marginalisation of under-privileged communities, and environmental degradation. Faced with the challenges of globalisation, many societies are experiencing fracture, fragmentation and atomization. This fragmentation is reflected in the lives of individuals as well as in the institutional structure and cultural patterns. It is manifested in exaggerated individualism, in compulsive consumerism and hedonism, in the disintegration of family, neighbourhood and community, in the falling apart and decomposing of human relationships, in the growing feelings of insecurity, vulnerability and uncertainty, in a pervasive existential vacuum.

Living in the increasingly abstract spaces of globalisation—characterised by gigantic, impersonal structures—the individual inevitably feels diminished, alienated and depersonalised. Edward Said has spoken about a “generalised condition of homelessness” in the context of modern societies. Henry Lefebvre has described the modern world in terms of a progressive invasion of the concrete space of everyday life by the abstract spaces of the economy and the state. The distinguished French sociologist Pierre Bourdieu observes that precariousness, fragility, instability and vulnerability are widespread and characteristic features of modern times. Alan Bullock has used the term “autistic society” to characterise modern Western societies in which men and women tend to shut themselves up in their own private worlds and become so afraid of communicating with each other that they nearly lose the habit of it. Zygmunt Bauman observes that men and women in modern society are tormented by “the dearth of recipes for a decent life, firmly fixed and steady orientation points of a predictable destination for the life itinerary.” A German philosopher and social commentator Georg Carlin has perceptively brought out the predicament of contemporary Western societies in the following words:

The paradox of our time in history is that we have taller buildings, but shorter tempers; wider freeways, but narrower viewpoints. We have split the atom, but not our prejudice. We spend more, but have less; more knowledge, but less time; more experts, but more problems. We have been all the way to the moon and back, but have trouble crossing the street to meet the new neighbour. We have more medicine, but less wellness. We talk too much, love too seldom, and hate too often. These are the days of throw-away morality, one-night stands, over-weight bodies, and pills that do every thing from cheer to quiten to kill. We drink too much, smoke too much, laugh too little, drive too fast, get too angry too quickly and pray too seldom.

Alan Bullock has used the term “autistic society” to characterise modern Western societies in which men and women tend to shut themselves up in their own private worlds and become so afraid of communicating with each other that they nearly lose the habit of it. Zygmunt Bauman observes that men and women in modern society are tormented by “the dearth of recipes for a decent life, firmly fixed and steady orientation points of a predictable destination for the life itinerary.”

One of the significant features of the era of globalisation is the unprecedented pace and scale of technological and social change. An unusually faster pace of life invariably brings about cognitive and behavioural disorientation and stress and creates problems of coping and adjustment. As a result of the increasingly fast pace of life, many people are becoming desensitised to the importance of continuity and wholeness in their lives. The power of speed undermines the value of those experiences which require time and slowness to develop: experiences such as psychological maturity and insight, genuine love and sympathy, creativity, the nurturing of meaningful and enduring relationships, and the cultivation of moral and aesthetic sensibilities. An important feature of our globalising era is the increasing geographical and occupational mobility which is occurring not only across different cities but also countries and even continents. This increasing mobility makes it extremely difficult for people to know their neighbours, let alone establish any enduring relationships. The problem of identity in the context of the new spaces created by migration, globalisation, cultural diversity and the accelerated pace of life has become extremely acute in the metropolitan cities.

The quantum and range of information in our globalising era is truly mind-boggling, thanks to modern information and communication technologies, and has no parallel in the annals of human history. One of the distressing consequences of the so-called information revolution is what has been described as the information overload syndrome, which is adversely affecting cognitive functions. The rapid and deep inroads made by modern information and communication technologies now threatens to pervade the private and personal lives of individuals, leaving them with little time for themselves and for reflection and self-introspection.

The growing popularity of Sufism

Sufism or Islamic mysticism has been, and continues to be, a highly influential movement and form of popular devotionalism in the Islamic world. Its great appeal lies in its emphasis on a selfless and sincere devotion to God, its broad-mindedness and cosmopolitanism, its deep humanism, and its inclusive outlook. Generally, the Sufis have eschewed doctrinal and sectarian squabbles and have sought to foster a spirit of love, compassion and fellow-feeling among their disciples.

Currently, a wave of conversion to the Islamic faith is sweeping across large parts of Europe and North America. In recent years more than 100,000 French, more than 50,000 Germans and more than 40,000 whites in Britain have embraced Islam. In the Netherlands there has been a ten-fold increase in the number of white converts after 9/11/. In Spain, several thousand Spanish people have embraced Islam, which is interpreted by them as a return to the faith of their ancestors who were forcibly converted to Christianity after the Reconquista. Interestingly, the majority of these converts are white women. The converts include many prominent persons and intellectuals, including Roger Garoudy, the celebrated intellectual and former French minister, Martin Lings, a former Keeper of Oriental Manuscripts at the British Museum, T. B. Irving, Rene Guenon, Fritjof Schuon, Titus Burckhardt, Julius Germanus, Yusuf Islam (the former pop singer Kete Stevens), T. J. Winter, an Oxford scholar, Yahya Birt, son of BBC’s former chief, and Joe Ahmad Dobson, son of a former cabinet minister in Britain.

Currently, a wave of conversion to the Islamic faith is sweeping across large parts of Europe and North America. In recent years more than 100,000 French, more than 50,000 Germans and more than 40,000 whites in Britain have embraced Islam. In the Netherlands there has been a ten-fold increase in the number of white converts after 9/11/. In Spain, several thousand Spanish people have embraced Islam, which is interpreted by them as a return to the faith of their ancestors who were forcibly converted to Christianity after the Reconquista. Interestingly, the majority of these converts are white women.

It is significant to note that a substantial proportion of these converts have been influenced and inspired by Sufism. Sufi brotherhoods and networks are active not only in Muslim countries but also in Europe, USA, Canada, Latin America and Australasia.

Mawlana Rumi

Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi was born in 1207 in Balkh, which is now a part of Afghanistan. He received his early education from his father Bahauddin, who was a highly respected teacher and religious leader. When Mawlana Rumi was in his teens, Balkh was invaded and laid to waste by the Mongol hordes. His family fled to Konya, now in Turkey, which was then the capital of the Seljuk Empire. His father was offered a teaching position at one of the prominent madrasas in the city. Mawlana Rumi received his spiritual and mystical training from Sayyid Burhanuddin, who was his father’s close friend. In the course of time, he travelled to Aleppo and Damascus to study with some of the greatest scholars and sages of his time. At the age of 37 he met his spiritual mentor Shams of Tabriz, who initiated him into the world of divine love and ecstasy. In his 50s Mawlana Rumi composed his celebrated Mathnawi, which is considered one of the greatest literary and spiritual masterpieces of all times. The Mathnawi begins with the following verse:

Listen to the reed and the tale it tells, How it sings of separation….

Relevance of Mawlana Rumi’s teachings in the global era

Broadly, the relevance and significance of Mawlana Rumi’s ideas and teachings in our globalising world is related to his universal and cosmopolitan outlook, the depth of his insights, his perceptive understanding and portrayal of the human condition, his deep humanism, his message of love and compassion, and his emphasis on the place of meaning and purpose in human life. Mawlana Rumi focuses on man’s quintessential nature, which is characterised by self-consciousness and self-reflection and the capacity for moral choice and transcendence, and urges man to explore the inner recesses of his being and to find the meaning and purpose of his life. In our globalising world, which is marked by moral drift, drivenness and pervasive existential emptiness, Mawlana Rumi’s ideas and teachings have great relevance. Mawlana Rumi says:

A bird flies with its wings towards its nest, The wings of a man are his aspiration and aim.

Mawlana Rumi focuses on man’s quintessential nature, which is characterised by self-consciousness and self-reflection and the capacity for moral choice and transcendence, and urges man to explore the inner recesses of his being and to find the meaning and purpose of his life.

The process of globalisation bristles with several paradoxes and contradictions. One of the paradoxes of globalisation is that, on the one hand, it has facilitated interaction and exchange among people on a massive scale, thanks to large-scale migrations and extensive travels within and across countries. On the other hand, modern information and communication technologies are making us increasingly aware of the wide prevalence of prejudice, mistrust and conflict in large parts of the world. The ubiquity of conflict and antagonism has led some scientists and scholars to argue that conflict and aggression in human society are inevitable. Ethologists and sociobiologists, for example, argue that aggression is genetically programmed in animals as well as in human beings.

An American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington has argued that the principal source of conflict in the international arena in the coming years will not be primarily ideological or economic but cultural. Huntington sees Islam and Western Christianity as potentially pitted against each other as the defining feature of the unfolding global scenario. Underlying Huntington’s thesis is the erroneous and mischievous assumption that a clash of civilizations between the Islamic and Western worlds is inevitable, largely because, in his view, Islam cannot peacefully coexist with other cultures and civilizations.

Huntington’s argument rests on fallacious assumptions and premises about the dynamics of human society and civilization. His views have been repudiated by some of the world’s leading intellectuals and writers and publicly condemned by several statesmen and heads of states in Europe and North America.

A much-needed corrective to the misguided thesis of the clash of civilizations has been provided by the UN-sponsored document of the Alliance of Civilizations. The UN initiative was cosponsored by the prime ministers of Catholic Spain and Muslim Turkey. The Alliance of Civilizations report was prepared by a cross-cultural group of 20 prominent international figures from a variety of religious traditions, including the former Iranian president Mohammed Khatami and the Anglican Bishop Desmond Tutu. The report, submitted to the UN in November 2006, calls for urgent efforts to bridge the growing divide between Muslims and the West. It points out that the main causes of the rift are not religion, culture or history, but recent political developments.

The views of ethologists and those of Samuel Huntington harbour certain implicit presuppositions about human nature which are one-sided, cynical and reductionistic. In fact, they are in keeping with the dominant conception of human nature in Western religious and philosophical thought. The eminent historian of ideas Arthur Lovejoy has observed that a pessimistic and cynical view of man and his destiny has been the dominant strain throughout the greater part of history. In Western Christianity, St. Augustine enunciated the doctrine of original sin and held that all men are by birth tainted by sin. Arthur Schopenhauer (d. 1860) developed a highly pessimistic and cynical view of human nature. He regarded man as an evil animal who differs from other animals only in his greater viciousness. The philosophy of Reinhold Niebuhr (d. 1971) spoke of evil as being in the centre of human personality. A major limitation of the cynical and deterministic view of human nature is that it fails to take cognizance of the salience of human agency and goodness, which is reflected in selflessness, altruism, self-sacrifice, kindness and compassion.

The Islamic view of man offers a balanced and realistic picture of human nature. The Islamic perspective on human nature is marked by four distinct characteristics. In the first place, Islam offers an ennobling view of human nature. Man, according to the Islamic view, has been created in the best of moulds and given dominion over all that is in the universe. Man is not the product of a blind process of evolution, but a self-conscious being who has been created by God Almighty with a purpose. All humans are born innocent, untainted by original sin or guilt. All human beings have descended from Adam, the primordial man, and are therefore equal in God’s sight. Furthermore, man has been designated as God’s vicegerent on earth. The equality and brotherhood of mankind is one of the cardinal principles of the Islamic faith. In his Last Sermon, Prophet Muhammad proclaimed: An Arab is not superior to a non-Arab, nor is a white man superior to a black man. All of you have descended from Adam and Adam was created from dust.

Secondly, human nature is characterised by a certain duality or polarity. On the one hand, man has been created from clay, a lowly substance (Quran 23:12; 32:7). On the other hand, God has breathed His soul into him (Quran 15:29). Thus, man possesses two rather contradictory potentialities: sublime and divine-like, on the one hand, and base and demonic, on the other (Quran 95:4-5). Man tends to be impatient and greedy (Quran 70:19). Furthermore, he has a tendency to be ungrateful, niggardly and contentious. He is prone to acting in an unjust manner and often surrenders to his desires (Quran 45:23). The dual nature of man is illustrated in the story of Abel and Cain (Quran 5:23-31).

Thirdly, Islam eschews a deterministic view of human nature. It takes due cognizance of human agency and emphasizes that man has been endowed with self-consciousness and the capacity for reasoning and moral choice. Man has the freedom to choose between good and evil (Quran 8:53; 13:11; 15:29). The Quran says: “We did indeed offer the trust (amanah) to the heavens and the earth and the mountains but, being afraid, they refused to take it up; but man took it up…. ..” (Quran 33:72). The commentators of the Quran point out that the word trust (amanah) refers to the capacity for reasoning, self-reflection and moral choice.

Fourthly, Islam recognizes the role of the social environment and education in unfolding, as well as in stifling, human potentialities. The Prophet is reported to have said: “There is not a newborn who is not born in a state of nature. (But) his parents make him a Jew, a Christian or a Magian.” He is also reported to have said: “A man follows the ways of his friend. Therefore you should be watchful about the person you befriend.” The Islamic view of human nature is not confined to an explication of its nature and dynamics; Islam also suggests a normative framework and an ethical code to facilitate the flowering of man benign potentialities and to check and control the destructive tendencies in his nature.

Interestingly, one can find an echo of the Islamic view of human nature in the observation of an eminent French philosopher Blaise Pascal (d.1662): “It is dangerous to show man too clearly how much he resembles the beast without at the same time showing him his greatness. It is also dangerous to allow him too clear a vision of his greatness without his baseness. It is even more dangerous to leave him in ignorance of both. But it is very profitable to show him both.”

Interestingly, one can find an echo of the Islamic view of human nature in the observation of an eminent French philosopher Blaise Pascal (d.1662): “It is dangerous to show man too clearly how much he resembles the beast without at the same time showing him his greatness. It is also dangerous to allow him too clear a vision of his greatness without his baseness. It is even more dangerous to leave him in ignorance of both. But it is very profitable to show him both.”

The Sufis evinced great interest in understanding the complexities and intricacies of human nature and in unravelling its secrets. Imam al-Ghazali (d.1111) pointed out that man possesses within himself qualities which are partly angelic, partly beastly, and partly Satanic. He says that man has been viewed in the Islamic tradition as a noble creature because he has been endowed with reason, through which he can gain a recognition of God and transcend his organismic limitations and frailties. Drawing on the Quranic view that good and evil are embedded in the structure of the human psyche, the Sufis make a distinction between the heart (qalb) and the lower, base self (nafs). They point out that the heart is the mainspring of benign and angelic qualities (such as compassion, sincerity, altruism, selflessness and humility) while the self is the locus and breeding ground of base qualities and traits (such as pride, jealousy, selfishness, deceit and hypocrisy). This distinction is basically derived from the Quran which describes the self as inciting man to evil (Quran 12:53), while it speaks of a ‘sound heart’ (Quran 26:89) and of a heart ‘turned in devotion to God’ (Quran 12:53). In Sufi literature the self has been compared to a defiant and wayward woman who tries to seduce and cheat the poor wayfarer. Sometimes it is likened to a black dog, a disobedient camel, a restive horse or mule, a pig, a snake, and the Pharaoh.

Since the self is considered the locus of evil and wickedness, the Sufis emphasize the need for rigorous and sustained efforts to overcome its temptations and enticements. Overcoming one’s organismic frailties and limitations—‘natural qualities,’ as the Sufis describe them—is regarded as the greater jihad or holy war. Imam Qushayri (d.1072) points out in his celebrated work Al Risalah that defying the desires and temptations of the lower self is the heart and soul of worship. Sahl al-Tustari (d.896) says that one who has overpowered the lower self has gained mastery over the whole world.

A central theme in Mawlana Rumi’s discourses and poetic compositions is the fundamental unity and brotherhood of mankind regardless of the distinctions of caste, class or status. In emphasizing the unity and brotherhood of mankind, he draws on a Hadith of Prophet Muhammad (may blessings of Allah be upon him!) in which he is reported to have said: (All of mankind is (like) God’s family, and the dearest of them in the sight of God is one who is the most kind and helpful to His family.) Mawlana Rumi says:

(We are the family of God and (like) breast-fed infants, for God has said that mankind is His family.)

Mawlana Jalaluddin Rumi’s views on human nature are in perfect accord with the Islamic tradition. He describes the dynamics and complexity of human nature and the elusive and enigmatic character of the self through folklore, parables and metaphors, which even the common man could follow. The appeal and effectiveness of the narrative is heightened further by the elegance and beauty of his poetic compositions. This constitutes his greatest and unique contribution to the subject.

Dwelling on the ennobling view of human nature in the Islamic tradition, Mawlana Rumi says that man is “the astrolabe of the qualities of highness.” In Fih ma Fih, he alludes to the duality of human nature and says that man is caught between the angelic world and the human world. To quote him:

The situation of man is like this: they took the feathers of an angel and tied them to the tail of an ass, that haply the ass in the ray and society of an angel might become an angel.

Your (lower) self is the mother of all idols, For they are (like) serpent and this one is like a python.

Satan’s disease was “I am superior,” This disease exists in the lower self of every creature.

What is worldly life? It is (basically) being oblivious of God. And not worldly provisions, silver, children and wife.

The relationship between the individual and society has been a problematic and contentious issue for centuries. Generally, one finds either of two extremes in most societies: the excessive, tyrannical hold of society which stifles individuality and personal autonomy, and exaggerated individualism. While most traditional societies in Asia and Africa are characterised by the former pattern, contemporary Western societies greatly value individualism. In the Western view, individuals exist in and of themselves, who are potentially self-sufficient, self-contained and self-propelled. The individual is believed to be the basic source and locus of identity. Individualism is embedded in the doctrine of liberalism which emphasizes the autonomy and freedom of the individual from all kinds of tyrannies. Liberalism holds that what is morally sound and desirable is to be determined by each individual and that one should not judge the actions of other people in terms of one’s own moral values. Thus liberalism inherently entails moral relativism. Individualism is a distinctive feature of the emerging global culture. The eminent sociologist Zygmunt Bauman has aptly described contemporary Western societies as representing an “individualised society.”

Both societal totalitarianism and radical individualism have inherent limitations. While social absolutism undermines individuality and brings about depersonalization, radical individualism leads to moral relativism and atomisation. The process of individualization and the tenet of radical individualism have brought about baneful, socially disruptive consequences in Western societies. Exaggerated individualism poses a threat to the stability and cohesiveness of Western societies. The baneful consequences of radical individualism are reflected in the fragmented social fabric and atomized relationships, in family disorganization, in stressful lifestyles, and in the impersonal, suffocating environment at the work place. Exaggerated individualism is positively correlated with apathy, indifference and lack of social commitment which, in turn, have contributed to the breakdown of family and community, erosion of social bonds, loss of faith in public institutions, drug abuse and the spurt in crime and delinquency in Western societies.

What is important is to strike a balance between individuality and societal constraints, between personal autonomy and social cohesion. Mawlana Rumi suggests a balanced approach to this problematic issue and, furthermore, introduces a normative dimension to the interface between individuality and social processes. He points out that while social influences undoubtedly play a highly significant role in moulding the individual’s personality and character, these influences could be potentially benign as well as vicious. It is therefore necessary to be vigilant about the nature of association one harbours and the company one keeps. He says:

The company of noble people will make you noble. That of the wicked will make you wicked.

If you happen to be sandstone and marble, You will become a pearl if you take to the company of sages.

Mawlana Rumi emphasizes that the key to eternal bliss and the panacea to the ills of mankind—individually and collectively—lies in sincere, selfless love (ishq). Love helps us in transcending our organismic limitations and frailties, in transporting us to a higher realm of existence, in bonding us with fellow human beings, and in providing us with the meaning and purpose of life.

Mawlana Rumi emphasizes that the key to eternal bliss and the panacea to the ills of mankind—individually and collectively—lies in sincere, selfless love (ishq). Love helps us in transcending our organismic limitations and frailties, in transporting us to a higher realm of existence, in bonding us with fellow human beings, and in providing us with the meaning and purpose of life.

Some of Mawlana Rumi’s most eloquent verses deal with this theme. To quote him:

Hail to thee, O Love, sweet madness! Thou who healest all our ailments! Who art the physician of our pride and self-conceit! Who art our Plato and Galen!